Performance investigation of poly(vinylidene fluoride-cohexafluoropropylene) membranes containing SiO2 nanoparticles in a newly designed single vacuum membrane distillation system.

The current study focuses on the development of a superhydrophobic poly(vinylidene fluoride-cohexafluoropropylene) nanocomposite membrane suitable for vacuum membrane distillation by incorporating SiO2 nanoparticles. At loading hydrophobic nano-SiO2 particle concentration (0.50-1.50 wt.%), the developed nanocomposite membranes are optimized in terms of vacuum membrane distillation performance. The influence of temperature, vacuum pressure, and feed water flow is studied for desalinating high-salinity brine. The results show that the developed vacuum distillation membrane is capable of 95% salt rejection during the treatment of a highly saline feed (65,000 ppm) at fixed flow rates of 120 L/h saline feed and different operating conditions consisting of feed inlet temperatures ranging from 40°C to 70°C and distillate inlet temperatures of 7-15°C. The vacuum membrane distillation process achieves 0.38-1.66% water recovery with increasing concentration factor, meaning that recovery is increased, and shows a specific electrical energy consumption of 5.16-23.90 kWh/m3 for product water. Overall, the newly designed membrane demonstrates suitability for a vacuum membrane distillation system. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Desalinate high-salinity brine (TDS > 35,000 ppm) using a vacuum membrane distillation system. A hydrophobic PVDF-HFP/SiO2 nanocomposite membrane development for vacuum membrane distillation. A newly designed single vacuum membrane distillation system for RO brine treatment.

A Systematic Approach Focused on Machine Learning Models for Exploring the Landscape of Physiological Measurement and Estimation Using Photoplethysmography (PPG).

A non-invasive optical technique known as photoplethysmography (PPG) can be used to provide various physiological measurements and estimations. PPG can be used to assess cardiovascular disease (CVD). Hypertension is a primary risk factor for CVD and a major health problem worldwide. PPG is popular because of its important applications in the evaluation of cardiac activity, variations in venous blood volume, blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure and heart rate variability, etc. In this study, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the extraction of various physiological parameters using PPG waveforms. In addition, we focused on the role of machine learning (ML) models used for the estimation of blood pressure and hypertension classification based on PPG waveforms to make future research and innovation recommendations. This study will be helpful for researchers, scientists, and medical practitioners working on PPG waveforms for monitoring, screening, and diagnosis, as a comparative study or reference.

A sustainable approach for the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from effluent using polyamide thin-film composite membranes integrated with Zn-based metal organic frameworks.

This study addresses the significant concern of pharmaceutical contaminants, including antipyretic and antibiotic drugs, in municipal and industrial wastewater, impacting both the environment and human health. We investigate incorporating zinc-based metal-organic framework (Zn-MOF) nanofillers into polyamide layers, developing thin-film composite (PA-TFC) nanofiltration membranes via interfacial polymerization to remove paracetamol, ibuprofen, and amoxicillin from simulated wastewater. Characterization confirms Zn-MOF's presence in the PA-TFC membrane, affecting structural topology, pore size, contact angles, and zeta potential. Zn-MOF nanofillers strongly adhere to the polyamide layer, influencing membrane surface chemistry and morphology. The newly developed MOF/PA-TFC nanofiltration membranes demonstrate a remarkable water flux of up to 35 LMH, showcasing superior removal efficiency for the three pharmaceutical contaminants when compared to PA-TFC membranes. Specifically, the rejection rates for paracetamol, ibuprofen, and amoxicillin are notably high at 93%, 98%, and 99%, respectively. Consequently, this study establishes MOF/PA-TFC nanofiltration membranes as a highly efficient solution for removing emerging pharmaceutical contaminants from environmental water, promoting sustainability and safeguarding water resources.

Efficient visible light-induced photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline hydrochloride using CuFe2O4 and PANI/CuFe2O4 nanohybrids.

Tetracycline hydrochloride (TC-HCl) is widely implemented as a wide-ranging antibacterial drug in medical care and animal husbandry, in spite of having negative effects on the environment and human health. Photocatalytic treatment is one of the popular techniques used to treat TC-HCl in wastewater. In this study, we have used CuFe2O4 and CuFe2O4/polyaniline (PANI) nanohybrids as photocatalysts for the degradation of TC-HCl. The metal ferrite and its nanohybrids were synthesized by co-precipitation method. FTIR, UV-Vis, XRD, and SEM-EDX were used to characterize the synthesized nanohybrids. The optical band gaps were estimated to be 2.74 eV for CuFe2O4, 1.72 eV for 1-PANI/CuFe2O4, 1.66 eV for 3-PANI/CuFe2O4, and 1.31 eV for 5-PANI/CuFe2O4. The photocatalytic performance of the nanohybrids appeared superior than pristine CuFe2O4, and maximum photocatalytic degradation was observed to be 86% within 120 min using 5-PANI/CuFe2O4 as the photocatalyst. The degraded fragments were analyzed by LCMS technique, and a tentative mechanism for the degradation of TC-HCl was proposed.

Scale Design of Dual-Layer Polyphenylsulfone/Sulfonated Polyphenylsulfone Hollow Fiber Membranes for Nanofiltration.

This study focuses on the synthesis and characterization of dual-layer sulfonated polyphenylenesulfone (SPPSu) nanocomposite hollow fiber nanofiltration membranes incorporating titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles through the phase inversion technique. Advanced tools and methods were employed to systematically evaluate the properties and performance of the newly developed membranes. The investigation primarily centered on the impact of TiO2 addition in the SPPSu inner layer on pure water permeability and salt rejection. The nanocomposite membranes exhibited a remarkable three-fold increase in pure water permeability, achieving a flux of 5.4 L/m2h.bar compared to pristine membranes. The addition of TiO2 also enhanced the mechanical properties, with an expected tensile strength increase from 2.4 to 3.9 MPa. An evaluation of salt rejection performance using a laboratory-scale filtration setup revealed a maximal rejection of 95% for Mg2SO4, indicating the effective separation capabilities of the modified dual-layer hollow fiber nanocomposite membranes for divalent ions. The successful synthesis and characterization of these membranes highlight their potential for nanofiltration processes, specifically in selectively separating divalent ions from aqueous solutions, owing to their improved pure water flux, mechanical strength, and salt rejection performance.

Sustainable removal of phenol from wastewater using a biopolymer hydrogel adsorbent comprising crosslinked chitosan and κ-carrageenan.

A biopolymer-based adsorbent comprising chitosan (CS) and κ-carrageenan (κ-Carr) was synthesised and evaluated to treat phenolic-contaminated water. The developed CS/κ-Carr hydrogel demonstrated excellent performance with a phenol adsorption uptake of 80 %. The morphologies of CS/κ-Carr hydrogels with different ratios of CS to κ-Carr ranging from 1:2 to 7:3 were characterised using scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy; their chemical structures were investigated by spectral analyses using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry; their adsorption characteristics were determined using tests for swelling, chemical stability, hygroscopic moisture content, and hydrophilicity. Finally, a batch-type evaluation method demonstrated adsorption performance at 25 °C and pH 6.9. Adsorption isotherms and kinetic data were successfully obtained using the Freundlich and pseudo-second-order models, respectively. The results indicate that one-pot synthesis of an insoluble CS/κ-Carr hydrogel adsorbent exhibits considerable potential for the removal of phenol from aqueous solutions, providing an environmentally friendly technology enhancing the phenol adsorption performance of CS.

Microwave-assisted rapid degradation of Methyl red dye using Polyfuran/Polythiophene and its Co-oligomers as catalysts.

The work reports for the first time microwave-assisted degradation of Methyl Red (MR) dye using polythiophene (PTh), polyfuran (PFu) and its co-oligomers. The co-oligomers were synthesized by sonication using varying mol ratios of PFu/PTh (80:20, 50:50 and 20:80). The polymers and its co-oligomers were analyzed for their spectral and morphological properties using FTIR, UV-visible and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with elemental mapping. The oligomers as well as pristine polymers were used as microwave active catalysts to degraded Methyl Red (MR) dye. The degradation was found to follow the pseudo-first-order model. Maximum degradation of 99% was achieved using PFu/PTh-50/50 as catalyst. Scavenging tests were also carried out to confirm the generation of radicals responsible for the effective degradation of the dye. The LCMS studies were used to explore the degraded fragments and a plausible mechanism was proposed to reveal the degradation pathway.

Synthesis and characterization of pH-responsive conducting polymer/Na-alginate/gelatin based composite hydrogels for sustained release of amoxicillin drug.

Composite hydrogels of Na-Alginate (Na-ALG) and Gelatin (GEL) with conducting polymers (CPs) were synthesised using poly(o-phenylenediamine) (POPD), polyaniline (PANI), poly(1-naphthylamine (PNA) and poly(vinylenedine fluoride) (PVDF). The synthesised hydrogels were characterized using FTIR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) rheology, swelling ability and in-vitro drug release characteristics. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether these hydrogels could be used to deliver antibiotics for extended drug release. The composite hydrogels were loaded with antibiotic drug: amoxicillin in three different concentrations and the release was studied at intestinal fluid (pH 7.4) and gastric fluid (pH 1.2). Release kinetics was found to show best fit in zero order models at both pH values and showed prolonged release characteristics. The POPD-Na-ALG/GEL showed highest release at intestinal pH of 7.4, while PVDF-Na-ALG/GEL showed highest release at gastric pH at 1.2.

Transformation of hazardous sacred incense sticks ash waste into less toxic product by sequential approach prior to their disposal into the water bodies.

Incense sticks ash is one of the most unexplored by-products generated at religious places and houses obtained after the combustion of incense sticks. Every year, tonnes of incense sticks ash is produced at religious places in India which are disposed of into the rivers and water bodies. The presence of heavy metals and high content of alkali metals challenges a potential threat to the living organism after the disposal in the river. The leaching of heavy metals and alkali metals may lead to water pollution. Besides this, incense sticks also have a high amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and ferrous along with traces of rutile and other oxides either in crystalline or amorphous phases. The incense sticks ash, heavy metals, and alkali metals can be extracted by water, mineral acids, and alkali. Ferrous can be extracted by magnetic separation, while calcium by HCl, alumina by sulfuric acid treatment, and silica by strong hydroxides like NaOH. The recovery of such elements by using acids and bases will eliminate their toxic heavy metals at the same time recovering major value-added minerals from it. Here, in the present research work, the effect on the elemental composition, morphology, crystallinity, and size of incense sticks ash particles was observed by extracting ferrous, followed by extraction of calcium by HCl and alumina by H2SO4 at 90-95 °C for 90 min. The final residue was treated with 4 M NaOH, in order to extract leachable silica at 90 °C for 90 min along with continuous stirring. The transformation of various minerals phases and microstructures of incense sticks ash (ISA) and other residues during ferrous, extraction, calcium, and alumina and silica extraction was studied using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). DLS was used for analyzing the size during the experiments while FTIR helped in the confirmation of the formation of new products during the treatments. From the various instrumental analyses, it was found that the toxic metals present in the initial incense sticks ash got eliminated. Besides this, the major alkali metals, i.e., Ca and Mg, got reduced during these successive treatments. Initially, there were mainly irregular shaped, micron-sized particles that were dominant in the incense sticks ash particles. Besides this, there were plenty of carbon particles left unburned during combustion. In the final residue, nanosized flowers shaped along with cuboidal micron-sized particles were dominant. present in If, such sequential techniques will be applied by the industries based on recycling of incense sticks ash, then not only the solid waste pollution will be reduced but also numerous value-added minerals like ferrous, silica, alumina calcium oxides and carbonates can be recovered from such waste. The value-added minerals could act as an economical and sustainable source of adsorbent for wastewater treatment in future.

Fabrication of different SnO2 nanorods for enhanced photocatalytic degradation and antibacterial activity.

The acid-mediated (oxalic acid [OXA], cinnamic acid [CA], and itaconic acid [IA]) SnO2 nanorods were synthesized by the hydrothermal method. The synthesized SnO2 nanorods, in turn, were analyzed with various physico-chemical techniques such as the X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and Raman spectroscopy. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of the different SnO2 nanorods was investigated with the malachite green (MG) dye under visible light illumination. The OXA-SnO2 nanorods displayed an excellent degradation performance with observed value at 91% and it was compared to CA and IA-SnO2 nanomaterials. This tetragonal phase was identified and confirmed by XRD studies. In this regards, obtained band gap energy is low then optimally performed to the photocatalytic evolution. The OXA-SnO2 materials were tested for antibacterial and antifungal studies; this was as shown in good biological activities with admire to the different bacterial strains. The Candida albicans (antifungal) and Enterococcus faecalis (Gram-positive) bacteria were not affected in the microbial studies.

Graphene Oxide-Polyphenylsulfone Nanocomposite Beads for Paracetamol Removal from Aqueous Solution.

This study introduces a promising and practical method for the removal of paracetamol from aqueous environments, employing graphene oxide-polymer nanocomposite beads. The approach involves the utilization of a straightforward and facile phase inversion method, offering a convenient and efficient one-step process for the creation of adsorbent beads by integrating polymers and graphene oxide (GO). The synthesized nanocomposite beads are tailored for the removal of paracetamol from simulated wastewater in batch systems. Extensive characterization techniques including XPS, FTIR, SEM, TGA, and zeta potential analysis are employed to scrutinize the chemical properties and structural attributes of the prepared beads. The investigation explores the impact of critical parameters such as adsorbent dosage, adsorption duration, initial paracetamol concentration, and solution pH on the adsorption process. These nanocomposite beads exhibit an exceptional paracetamol removal efficiency, achieving up to 99% removal. This research not only contributes to the advancement of efficient and sustainable adsorbent materials for pollutant removal but also underscores their potential for environmentally friendly and cost-effective solutions in the domain of wastewater treatment.

Recent Advancements in Polyphenylsulfone Membrane Modification Methods for Separation Applications.

Polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) membranes are of fundamental importance for many applications such as water treatment, gas separation, energy, electronics, and biomedicine, due to their low cost, controlled crystallinity, chemical, thermal, and mechanical stability. Numerous research studies have shown that modifying surface properties of PPSU membranes influences their stability and functionality. Therefore, the modification of the PPSU membrane surface is a pressing issue for both research and industrial communities. In this review, various surface modification methods and processes along with their mechanisms and performance are considered starting from 2002. There are three main approaches to the modification of PPSU membranes. The first one is bulk modifications, and it includes functional groups inclusion via sulfonation, amination, and chloromethylation. The second is blending with polymer (for instance, blending nanomaterials and biopolymers). Finally, the third one deals with physical and chemical surface modifications. Obviously, each method has its own limitations and advantages that are outlined below. Generally speaking, modified PPSU membranes demonstrate improved physical and chemical properties and enhanced performance. The advancements in PPSU modification have opened the door for the advance of membrane technology and multiple prospective applications.

Thin-Film Nanocomposite Membrane Incorporated with Porous Zn-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks: Toward Enhancement of Desalination Performance and Chlorine Resistance.

Metal-organic framework (MOF) materials have received extensive attention for the design of advanced thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes with excellent permselectivity. However, the relationship between the unique physicochemical properties and performance of engineered MOF-based membranes has yet to be extensively investigated. In this work, we investigate the incorporation of porous zinc-based MOFs (Zn-MOFs) into a polyamide active layer for the fabrication of TFN membranes on porous poly(phenylsulfone) (PPSU) support layers through an interfacial polymerization approach. The actual effects of varying the amount of Zn-MOF added as a nanofiller on the physicochemical properties and desalination performance of TFN membranes are studied. The presence and layout of Zn-MOFs on the top layer of the membranes were confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and ζ potential analysis. The characterization results revealed that Zn-MOFs strongly bind with polyamide and significantly change the membrane chemistry and morphology. The results indicate that all four studied TFN membranes with incorporated Zn-MOFs enhanced the water permeability while retaining high salt rejection compared to a thin-film composite membrane. Moreover, the highest-performing membrane (50 mg/L Zn-MOF added nanofiller) not only exhibited a water permeability of 2.46 ± 0.12 LMH/bar but also maintained selectivity to reject NaCl (>90%) and Na2SO4 (>95%), similar to benchmark values. Furthermore, the membranes showed outstanding water stability throughout 72 h filtration and chlorine resistance after a 264 h chlorine-soaking test because of the better compatibility between the polyamide and Zn-MOF nanofiller. Therefore, the developed TFN membrane has potential to solve trade-off difficulties between permeability and selectivity. Our findings indicate that porous Zn-MOFs play a significant role in the development of a TFN membrane with high desalination performance and chlorine resistance.

Variations and similarities in structural, chemical, and elemental properties on the ashes derived from the coal due to their combustion in open and controlled manner.

Coal fly ash (CFA) and coal-based incense sticks ash (ISA) have several similarities and differences due to the presence of coal as a common component in both of them. CFA are produced from the combustion of pulverized coal during electricity production in the thermal power plants while ISA are produced from the burning of incense sticks at religious places and at houses. A typical black colored Indian, incense sticks are mainly are comprised of coal powder or potassium nitrate, wood chip, fragrance, binder or binding agent, and bamboo sticks. The black colored incense sticks have coal powder or charcoal as a facilitator for smoother burning of incense sticks. The detailed investigation of CFA and ISA by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), electron diffraction spectroscopy (EDS), inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), particle size analyzer (PSA), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the morphological, chemical, and elemental properties. Both the coal based ashes comprises minerals like calcites, silicates, ferrous, alumina, and traces of Mg, Na, K, P, Ti, and numerous toxic heavy metals as confirmed by the XRF, ICP-AES, and EDS. While, microscopy revealed the presence of well-organized spherical shaped particles, namely cenospheres, plerospheres, and ferrospheres of size varying from 0.02 µm to 7 microns in CFA. Whereas, ISA particles are irregular, aggregated, calcium to carbon rich whose size varies from 60 nm to 9 microns and absence of well-organized spherical structures. The well developed and crystalline structure in CFA is due to the controlled combustion parameter in thermal power plants during the burning of coal while incense sticks (IS) burning is under uncontrolled manner. So, FTIR and XRD confirmed that the major portion of fly ash constitutes crystalline minerals whereas ISA have mainly amorphous phase minerals. CFA have ferrospheres of both rough and smooth surfaced, which was absent from the ISA and hence ferrous particles of CFA are of high magnetic strength. The detailed investigation of ashes will lead to the applications of ashes in new fields, which will minimize the solid waste pollution in the environment.

Chromium contamination and effect on environmental health and its remediation: A sustainable approaches.

Chromium (Cr) is a trace element critical to human health and well-being. In the last few decades, its contamination, especially hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] form in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, has amplified as a result of various anthropogenic activities. Chromium pollution is a significant environmental threat, severely impacting our environment and natural resources, especially water and soil. Excessive exposure could lead to higher levels of accumulation in human and animal tissues, leading to toxic and detrimental health effects. Several studies have shown that chromium is a toxic element that negatively affects plant metabolic activities, hampering crop growth and yield and reducing vegetable and grain quality. Thus, it must be monitored in water, soil, and crop production system. Various useful and practical remediation technologies have been emerging in regulating chromium in water, soil, and other resources. A sustainable remediation approach must be adopted to balance the environment and nature.

Removal of Cadmium and Chromium by Mixture of Silver Nanoparticles and Nano-Fibrillated Cellulose Isolated from Waste Peels of Citrus Sinensis.

Nano-fibrillated cellulose (NFC) was extracted by a chemical method involving alkali and acid hydrolysis. The characterisation of the citrus sinensis fruit peel bran and nano-fibrillated cellulose was performed by XRD, FTIR, TEM, and FESEM. XRD confirmed the phase of NFC which showed monoclinic crystal with spherical to rod shape morphology with a size of 44-50 nm. The crystallinity index of treated NFC increased from 39% to 75%. FTIR showed the removal of lignin and hemicellulose from waste peels due to the alkaline treatment. Silver nanoparticles were also synthesised by utilizing extract of citrus sinensis skins as a reducing agent. Pharmaceutical effluent samples from an industrial area were tested by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Out of the four metals obtained, cadmium and chromium were remediated by silver nanoparticles with nano-fibrillated cellulose via simulated method in 100 mg/L metal-salt concentrations over a time period of 160 min. The highest removal efficiency was found for cadmium, i.e., 83%, by using silver and NFC together as adsorbents. The second highest was for chromium, i.e., 47%, but by using only NFC. The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were well fitted for the sorption of Cd (II) and Cr (II) with suitable high R2 values during kinetic simulation. Thus, the isolation of NFC and synthesis of silver nanoparticles proved efficient for heavy metal sorption by the reuse of waste skins.

Evaluating heavy metals contamination in soil and vegetables in the region of North India: Levels, transfer and potential human health risk analysis.

This study determined the heavy metals (HMs) accumulation in different vegetables in different seasons and attributed a serious health hazard to human adults due to the consumption of such vegetables in Jhansi. The total amounts of zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd) were analysed in 28 composite samples of soil and vegetables (Fenugreek, spinach, eggplant, and chilli) collected from seven agricultural fields. The transfer factor (TF) of HMs from soil to analysed vegetables was calculated, and significant non-carcinogenic health risks due to exposure to analysed heavy metals via consumption of these vegetables were computed. The statistical analysis involving Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation matrix suggested that anthropogenic activities were a major source of HMs in the study areas. The target hazard quotient of Cd, Mn, and Pb for fenugreek (2.156, 2.143, and 2.228, respectively) and spinach (3.697, 3.509, 5.539, respectively) exceeded the unity, indicating the high possibilities of non-carcinogenic health risks if regularly consumed by human beings. This study strongly suggests the continuous monitoring of soil, irrigation water, and vegetables to prohibit excessive accumulation in the food chain.

Synthesis and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol/corn starch/linseed polyol-based hydrogel loaded with biosynthesized silver nanoparticles.

Nanocomposite hydrogel film was prepared from Polyvinyl alcohol [PVA], Corn Starch [CS], Linseed oil polyol [LP], and silver nanoparticles [NP]. LP was prepared by epoxidation and hydration of Linseed oil [LO]. IR and NMR supported the insertion of hydroxyl groups in LP by epoxide ring opening reaction at epoxidized LO. Silver NP were biosynthesized using aqueous leaves' extract from locally grown Ocimum forsskaolii Benth [LEO] plant. FTIR, XRD, UV and TEM confirmed the synthesis of NP (size 30 to 39 nm). Transparent and foldable hydrogel film resulted by blending the constituents (PVA, CS, LP and NP), crosslinking by glutaraldehyde, at room temperature, and showed expansion in water, different pH solutions, biodegradation and good antibacterial and antifungal activity against tested microbes. Linseed polyol influenced the structure, morphology, hydrophilicity, improved swelling ability and thermal stability and accelerated biodegradation of hydrogel films. NP were well adhered to LP globules that were embedded in PVA/CS matrix as strung set of beads (LP globules) decorated with black pearls (spherical NP). Silver NP conferred antimicrobial behavior to hydrogel film as observed by antimicrobial screening on different microbes. The results were encouraging and showed that such hydrogel films may find prospective applications in antimicrobial packaging.

A highly permeable zinc-based MOF/polyphenylsulfone composite membrane with elevated antifouling properties.

In this study, for the first time, a highly permeable composite membrane was constructed by incorporating a zinc-based metal-organic framework (Zn-MOF) in a polyphenylsulfone matrix for the elevation of antifouling properties. Owing to the hydrophilic nature and high surface charge, this membrane demonstrated effective bovine serum albumin (a model protein) rejection and antifouling characteristics.